ESSAY
Reformed Theology and African American Presbyterian Worship
By Edward B. Newberry
Pastor, Memorial Presbyterian Church, Charlotte, NC

April of 2003 marked the centennial anniversary of the publication of The Souls Of Black Folk.  Dr. William Edward Burghardt Dubois, a 35-year-old scholar, who was the first African American to earn the Ph.D. from Harvard University, wrote this small but very influential book. Three years into the 20^th century DuBois introduced a dilemma in The Forward: “Herein lie buried many things which if read with patience may show the strange meaning of being black here at the dawning of the Twentieth Century. . .for the problem of the 20^th century will be the problem of the color line.”¹ That is the most famous statement of this seminal book of essays. The essay subtitled “Fifty Years After” refers to the time since President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, which freed African slaves in northern-conquered territory in the Civil War. One other observation in that book was Dubois’s description of living as a black person in America. Dubois wrote: “One ever feels his twoness—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts; two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body.”² One had to exist in two distinct worlds: one black because of race and identity; one white because of the wider culture, economic, political, educational and social systems in America.

In a sense, that is where African American Presbyterian pastors and congregations find themselves. We are, by the decree of God, blessed with the identity of being black, with all that this portends regarding heritage and history, personality and perspective. Yet we are, by decision of faith, blessed with the covenant relationship of a Church that is predominately white, steeped in a Reformed, European, Scotch-Irish heritage, mixed with the history of Protestantism and sad reality of racism in America. African Americans have to figure out how to exist, contribute, thrive, and be spiritually nourished inside of this ecclesiastical “twoness.”

The question of our discussion is: How does Reformed theology help shape the worship of African American Presbyterian congregations? At a more personal level, what are the principles guiding pastors, sessions, musicians, or worship committees as they lead the people in fulfilling our confessional declaration of trust in the Triune God, whom alone we worship and serve? At a practical level, how do we shape worship that will be inviting, relevant to a population that is no longer captive to the total imitation of the ways of white people as legitimization for what they do and how they exist?

These questions, and more, are particularly important for ministers of Word and Sacrament, and elders, who by ordination vow promise obedience to Jesus Christ under the authority of Scripture and continual guidance by our confessions. By polity, the session is “to provide for the worship of the people of God, including the preaching of the Word, the sharing of the Sacraments, for the music program, in keeping with the principles in the Directory for Worship.”³ These are matters of constitutional authority.

Let me attempt to address and possibly suggest our discussion of these questions under three broad categories, which I know are important in the arena of African American Church worship, and which I think are important in Reformed theology. They are praise, prayer and preaching. Within these categories, we can find both tensions, if not conflicts of cultures, and possibilities for blending these two realities of being Black and Presbyterian as we worship. Although Howard Hageman did not write Pulpit and Table to address these specific issues, he gives some helpful thoughts as well as some implied freedoms, as we explore our subjects. His distinction between Liturgy and Ceremony is one example. Liturgy is what the community says in speech, song, and its acts of worship. Ceremony is the way it is said, gestures, actions, settings. His adamant point of there never being a set way for Reformed worship to be done is an invitation to freedom, which is important in the Black Church. But we still have the task of worship being expressive of doctrine and theology. As Hageman writes: “our liturgical life has always been and still must be under the judgment and corrective of the living Word.”⁴

Praise

If there can be a favorite Presbyterian Psalm it is the 100^th. From a local congregation on any given Sunday to the opening worship of a General Assembly, it has been customary for Presbyterians to sing “All People That On Earth Do Dwell”, or “Old Hundreth” This hymn is based on that Psalm, which truly shapes our purpose in worship. We are to “make a joyful noise. . . worship the Lord with gladness. . .enter his gates with thanksgiving, and his courts with praise.” In Reformed understanding, all of life is worship and praise, but it has particular shape when we are Christ’s gathered community, when we come before God and rejoice. In principle, there is no tension here. Worship is central to the life of the Black Church, the most important thing to be done. Nothing is to compete with “going to Church.” From the time Christianity was introduced to or imposed on African slaves in America, the actions of worship have been significant and sustaining. As African-American and Presbyterian professor of worship, Dr. Melva Costen writes in African American Christian Worship: “The invisible environment allowed free space, God’s space, where enslaved worshipers could hear an anticipated hope in God’s word.”⁵ Expressing the importance of worship among black people even today, Dr. Costen also writes: “A sense of wholeness is facilitated when worshipers can bring all that they are to the beloved community and know that they will be appreciated and affirmed. . .in a context which allows uninhibited response to the grace of God.”⁶

Reformed theology makes extremely clear that our worship is addressed to God. No other gods, not even our own needs, are to come before our attention to God in praise. African American congregations share a dilemma of other racial and ethnic groups in our nation of consumers. We must maintain this doctrine of praise to the Sovereign God when people are seeking “to get something out of worship” or “have my needs met.”

One way that African American Presbyterians can be faithful to Reformed theology at this point is to adhere to worship being Biblical. In this community where Scripture is sacred, the constant quoting of Scripture or use of biblical symbols help to keep the focus on God. Whether a call to worship or an announcement of forgiveness, biblical language has credibility, which facilitates acceptance.

Probably the most challenging area to keep Reformed theology intact is that of music. Historically, the Black Church has sung hymns, even without the accompaniment of trained musicians or exquisite instruments. Acappella singing or hymn choirs characterized much congregational music. Today in many African American Churches, including Presbyterian, hymns are questioned as adequate for praise. Gospel songs and contemporary praise melodies are growing in popularity regardless of the beliefs celebrated. The question for pastors is whether these carry the weight of providing “first order theology” which is often a way believers grow in learning and expressing the faith. One avenue of meeting this challenge is to incorporate a variety of musical expressions, and to use more songs composed by or originating from African Americans. The Presbyterian Hymnal of 1990 is more inclusive of racial/ethnic selections than any previous Presbyterian hymnal. It contains 23 selections under the heading “African American.” Music in African American Presbyterian churches must draw from the heritage of "Negro Spirituals”, evangelical hymns popular in Black Church experience, traditional and contemporary Gospel songs. Music does move the soul. This might be explained by professor of ministry, Robert E. Webber in his book, Worship Old & New: “Music in worship draws the earthly worshiper into the heavens to stand with the heavenly throng as they offer praise to God.”⁷ We should strive to meet that goal.  

Prayer

Our Directory for Worship boldly states that “Prayer is at the heart of worship.” In prayer we respond to God in many ways: adoration, thanksgiving, confession, supplication, intercession, illumination, and Eucharist. While these categories of prayer may not have been formally identified, the intent of each has been historically found in black worship. Prayer itself was considered a gift. Some members were well noted as a “praying” deacon or sister. Preachers were automatically expected to be good prayers, who really could draw from the well of divine wisdom and “carry us to the throne of grace.”

In some Black churches the tension between liturgical/written and extemporaneous prayer is present. To be faithful to the variety of prayer is also a mild challenge because it implies a formal order of worship. As with music, variety of authors, origin, culture, and language can keep prayer essential and faithful to Reformed theology.  Within our Presbyterian Book of Common Worship and A Book Of Reformed Prayers by Howard Rice and Lamar Williamson are found a variety of prayers including some by African Americans and from African churches. Intentional identification and use of these are important. In keeping with the purpose, members could be encouraged to write and offer their personally led prayers, such as deacon’s prayers of thanksgiving, or elder’s prayers of intercession.

Preaching

Regardless of history or denomination, all black churches have adhered to the centrality of the read and preached Word. This might be the most consistent agreement between historically black and Reformed theology of worship. The Directory for Worship says: “The preached Word or sermon is a proclamation of Scripture in the conviction that through the Holy Spirit Jesus Christ is present to the gathered people, offering grace and calling for obedience.” I think that this resonates with the understanding of preaching in African American Churches, especially Presbyterian. The critical question is how much formal theology really does find its way into the proclamation. For some people, quoting the Bible, or jumping from verse to verse is sufficient. In the so-called Word Churches, which are growing in popularity among black people, this is the essence of preaching, supported by familiar or culturally sensitive illustrations. The serious challenge of black Presbyterian preachers is to make the confessional and theological teachings of our church come alive for the listeners of sermons. Can the Reformed themes—majesty, holiness, and providence of God; election for service and salvation; covenant life; faithful stewardship; sin and redemption—truly speak to African Americans today? Do these themes address their pertinent questions of life? 

For some the most important thing in preaching is not so much the what as the how. Historically, Reformed preaching has been to the head more than to the heart, at least in its presentation. The opposite might be said for traditional black preaching. Without question, the style of black preaching has been a distinctive feature of worship. It could be described as creative engaging, biblical, narrative, humorous, stirring, emotional, poetic, political, edifying, spiritual, and exciting. For many years, black Presbyterian ministers focused more on the what—sound doctrine, accurate hermeneutics, and Reformed distinctives. These were considered evidence of a learned ministry. In an article, “Recasting Black Preaching in a Presbyterian Context,” Rev. Robert Newbold, retired Associated Stated Clerk of the General Assembly, gives this critical assessment: “Historically, Black Presbyterian preachers have existed outside this (Black) established tradition. The consensus was Black Presbyterian preachers could not preach; they were hailed as lecturers, teachers, liturgists—not preachers.” Newbold explains that “the preaching model for many Black preachers were White homiletics teachers and writers.”⁸

That is changing with the expectations of black people for worship in the black idiom or Afrocentric style, which is more emotional or lively or culturally sensitive. Some black pastors believe this is necessary to attract newcomers and grow membership. It certainly enhances identity as being more African American Christian than just Presbyterian and Reformed. In a non-documented quote, Newbold reflects the position of black preachers and worshipers who are saying to white Presbyterians: “We acknowledge the importance of Reformed Tradition rooted European white American culture, while acknowledging the importance of African American culture. . . .We are willing to share some of our rich heritage with you.”

Whether worship of African American Presbyterians will be shaped by Reformed theology is a question, which quite frankly might not even be asked as these congregations seek for relevancy, vitality and indeed a future. With new, maybe liberated sensitivities and appropriate pride in our heritage, priority could be given to what is deemed more authentically African American Christian over what is accepted and understood as Presbyterian. It can only be hoped that among African American Presbyterians true worship of Almighty God, faithfulness to the Lord Jesus Christ and life in the power of the Holy Spirit will remain paramount in our life of discipleship.